| |
|
|
| Year : 2009 | Volume
: 12
| Issue : 4 | Page : 131-138 |
|
| Stem cell therapy - Hype or hope? A review |
|
|
Roopa R Nadig
Department of Conservative Dentistry and Endodontics, Dayananda Sagar College of Dental Sciences, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
Click here for correspondence address and email
| Date of Submission | 06-Oct-2009 |
| Date of Decision | 10-Oct-2009 |
| Date of Acceptance | 15-Oct-2009 |
| Date of Web Publication | 15-Dec-2009 |
|
|
 |
|
 Abstract | | |
While the regeneration of a lost tissue is known to mankind for several years, it is only in the recent past that research on regenerative medicine/dentistry has gained momentum and eluded the dramatic yet scientific advancements in the field of molecular biology. The growing understanding of biological concepts in the regeneration of oral/dental tissues coupled with experiments on stem cells is likely to result in a paradigm shift in the therapeutic armamentarium of dental and oral diseases culminating in an intense search for "biological solutions to biological problems." Stem cells have been successfully isolated from variety of human tissues including orofacial tissues. Initial evidence from pioneering studies has documented the likely breakthrough that stem cells offer for various life-threatening diseases that have so far defeated modern medical care. The evidence gathered so far has propelled many elegant studies exploring the role of stem cells and their manifold dental applications. This review takes you on a sojourn of the origin of stem cells, their properties, characteristics, current research, and their potential applications. It also focuses on the various challenges and barriers that we have to surmount before translating laboratory results to successful clinical applications heralding the dawn of regenerative dentistry. Keywords: DPSC; regeneration; scaffolds; stem cell.
How to cite this article:
Nadig RR. Stem cell therapy - Hype or hope? A review. J Conserv Dent 2009;12:131-8 |
| Introduction | |  |
The sojourn of science has unraveled and understood that the secret of life lies in the "DNA," thanks to Sir James Watson and Crick for their epoch making a historic discovery. In our endeavor to demystify the DNA, we have realized that scientific discoveries in cellular, developmental, and molecular biology have truly revolutionized our collective understanding of the biological processes that could greatly impact and dramatically change our lives in the future.
In the new millennium, where biology and biotechnology have replaced chemistry, we are exploring "biological solutions to biological problems." Owing to the extraordinary advances taking place in the field of cellular and molecular biology, we are on the verge of a paradigm shift, evolving from offering simple mechanical care to consider biological solutions to health promotion, risk assessment, diagnosis, treatment, and even prognosis.
Although stem cell technology is just emerging, the regeneration of body parts is hardly a new concept. The regenerative capability of a living creature was recorded as early as 330 BC, when Aristotle observed that a lizard could grow back the lost tip of its tail. Since then, there have been slow but steady attempts at understanding the regenerative capabilities of human being and it is only in the last decade that we have seen an information explosion in the area of stem cell research. Stem cells are likely to revolutionize the entire health care delivery. The time is certainly ripe for all of us to familiarize ourselves with the following: what are stem cells, their characteristics, their potential applications, current research translating to therapy, and possible barriers of its application from the bench to the bedside/chair.
| What are Stem Cells and their Characteristics ? | | |
They are unspecialized cells with an extraordinary ability to self-renew, capable of differentiating into one or more specialized cell types playing a crucial role in homeostasis and tissue repair.
When called into action following an injury, a stem cell self-renews - undergoes cell division and gives rise to one daughter stem cell and one progenitor cell. A progenitor cell is an intermediate cell type formed before it achieves a fully differentiated state. It is regarded as committed to differentiating along a particular cellular developmental pathway of stem cells:
Stem cell → Stem cell + Progenitor cell → Differentiated cell
Based on their origin, stem cells are categorized either as embryonic stem cells (ESCs) or as postnatal stem cells/somatic stem cells/adult stem cells (ASCs).
Characteristics
- Totipotency: generate all types of cells including germ cells (ESCs).
- Pluripotency: generate all types of cells except cells of the embryonic membrane.
- Multipotency: differentiate into more than one mature cell (MSC).
- Self-renewal: divide without differentiation and create everlasting supply.
- Plasticity: MSCs have plasticity and can undergo differentiation. The trigger for plasticity is stress or tissue injury which upregulates the stem cells and releases chemoattractants and growth factors.
Among the types of differentiation are:
- Direct differentiation: a specific type of cell in a special niche developed in a multistep unidirectional pathway (e.g., MSCs differentiating into osteoblasts/fibroblasts).
- Transdifferentiation: direct conversion of one cell type to another different cell type (e.g., blood cells into brain cells and vice versa).
- Dedifferentiation: a unipotent stem cell becoming a multipotent one.
- Cell fusion: a stem cell fusing with a somatic cell resulting in another lineage (e.g., ESCs fuse in vitro with HSCs and neuronal cells).
Embryonic stem cells
Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are derived from embryos that are 2-11 days old called blastocysts. They are best grown from supernumerary embryos obtained from in vitro fertilization centers. They are totipotent - cells virtually capable of differentiating into any type of cell including the germ cell. ESCs are considered immortal as they can be propagated and maintained in an undifferentiated state indefinitely. These stem cells have the highest potential to regenerate and repair diseased tissue and organs in the body. [1],[2] However, the therapeutic benefit of ESCs is bogged by a controversy owing to the belief that the process of extraction of stem cells from an embryo destroys the embryo itself and some view this as taking life, thereby, raising moral and ethical concerns. Further, it is difficult to control the growth and differentiation of the embryonic stem cell posing risk of tumorogenicity and teratoma formation. While research is on to overcome some of these shortfalls as of now, ESCs are not so far used therapeutically and have only remained an excellent platform for research.
Adult stem cells
Adult stem cells are found in most adult tissues. They are multipotent - capable of differentiating into more than one cell type but not all cell types. [3] The plasticity of an adult stem cell is described as its ability to expand beyond its potential irrespective of the parent cell from which it is derived. For example, dental pulp stem cells not only develop into tooth tissue but also have the ability to differentiate into neuronal tissue.
Depending on their origin, adult stem cells can be further classified as hemopoetic stem cells (HSCs) and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). HSCs are obtained either from cord blood or peripheral blood. MSCs are those that originate from the mesoderm layer of the fetus and in the adult reside in a variety of tissues such as the bone marrow stem cells (BMSCc), limbal stem cells, hepatic stem cells, dermal stem cells, etc.
Stem cells have also been isolated from orofacial tissues which include adult tooth pulp tissue, pulp tissue of deciduous teeth, periodontal ligament, apical papilla, and buccal mucosa. Gronthos et al. have isolated stem cells from adult human dental pulp (DPSCs) that exhibit a similar immunophenotype to bone marrow stem cells. [4] Stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHED) represent a unique population of multipotent stem cells that are easily accessible and are more immature in the cell hierarchy than the adult pulp stem cells. [5] Using a similar methodology, multipotent stem cells from the human periodontal ligament (PDLCs) have also been described. [6] Recently, a new population of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) residing in the apical papilla of incompletely developed teeth (SCAP) have been isolated and demonstrated in elegant studies. [7],[8]
| Why Stem Cell Research ? | | |
Advances in stem cell research have explored many therapeutic avenues and the insight gained by a pilot proof of concept studies promises a plethora of unimaginable benefits:
- They are useful in functional genomic studies to understand human embryonic gene expression, genomic data mining, and bioinformatics. [9]
- They serve to study biological processes which help in understanding human developmental disorders like birth defects, cancers, etc.
- They are new means of creating human disease models for drug discovery and development. It serves as an alternative to animal toxicology thereby hastening the drug to the market. [10]
- The most crucial and exciting of all stem cell uses is cell-based therapy.
Cell-based therapy
Adult stem cells have been used in pilot studies as potential cell-based therapy for various diseases. The following stem cell characteristics make them good candidates for cell-based therapy: [9]
- Potential to be harvested from patients
- High capacity of cell proliferation in culture
- Ease of manipulation to replace existing nonfunctional genes via gene splicing methods
- Ability to migrate to host target tissues (homing)
- Ability to integrate into host tissues and interact with the surrounding tissues.
Process of cell-based therapy
Stem cells derived from either peripheral blood, cord blood, bone marrow, or any adult tissue transported in the right medium to the laboratory is centrifuged, trypsinized, and propagated under ideal conditions and stored in the master cell bank (MCB). The MCB is further passaged to yield colonies of stem cells, given the right inductive signals using appropriate growth factors to allow them to differentiate into required cell types. These are injected or implanted into a patient as cell-based therapy. Homing will ensure that the stem cells reach the site of injury/tissues.
Today, the two common methods of cell delivery are intravenous injection (direct delivery of cells) and cell encapsulation systems (indirect delivery of cells using a carrier). The cell encapsulation approach uses a biocompatible, biodegradable material construct that is seeded with cells and implanted into defects in order to regenerate the lost tissue. [11]
| Potential Applications in Medicine | | |
Stem cells are being explored for a variety of chronic debilitating diseases that have so far escaped remedial measures from traditional allopathic approaches with a hope that cell therapy would repair, repopulate, replace, and rewire tissues and organs regenerating hope and kindling confidence in such therapies.
Because of the overwhelming success of animal studies, numerous clinical trials are now going on world over. [12],[13],[14],[15],[16] Various therapeutic programs in either pilot or proof of concept studies are exploring the role of cell replacement therapy under conditions like Parkinson's disease, spinal cord injury, heart failure, hematological disease, cancer, arthritis, diabetes, and peripheral vascular disease. Interim results from the pilot studies are encouraging and have led the US FDA to permit Phase III clinical trials for acute and steroid refractory graft versus host disease and also Crohn's disease, Phase II clinical trials for the repair of heart tissue following a heart attack, the protection of pancreatic islet cells in patients with type 1 diabetes, and the repair of lung tissue in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. An injectable formulation of mesenchymal stem cells, for arthritis in the knee, is also being evaluated (data on file - www.osiristx.com). Even in India, we are not far behind since Phase II proof of concept studies has been approved and is underway (http://clinicaltrisals.gov/).
| Potential Applications in Dentistry | | |
The regenerative potential of adult stem cells obtained from various sources including dental tissues has been of interest for clinicians over the past years and most research is directed toward achieving the following:
- Regeneration of damaged coronal dentin and pulp
- Regeneration of resorbed root, cervical or apical dentin, and repair perforations
- Periodontal regeneration
- Repair and replacement of bone in craniofacial defects
- Whole tooth regeneration.
Regeneration of damaged coronal dentin and pulp
To this date, no restorative material has been able to mimic all physical and mechanical properties of tooth tissue. Furthermore, we have not been successful in providing an ideal solution to certain situations, such as an immature tooth with extensive coronal destruction and reversible pulpitis. If the regeneration of tooth tissue is possible in these situations, it facilitates physiologic dentin deposition that forms an integral part of the tooth thereby restoring structural integrity, minimizing interfacial failure, microleakage, and other consequent complications. Similarly, young permanent teeth that require apexogenesis or apexification are the perfect candidates for the regeneration of pulp as they allow completion of both vertical and lateral root development, improving the long-term prognosis. However, pulp regeneration in fully formed teeth may not be of great benefit, although there is sufficient evidence to say that a restored vital tooth serves longer than a root-canal-treated one. [17],[18] Pulp tissue regeneration involves either delivery of autologous/allogenic stem cells into the root canals or implantation of the pulp that is grown in the laboratory using stem cells. Both these techniques will have certain advantages and limitations that need further research. [19]
A landmark study conducted by Gronthos et al. demonstrated both in vitro and in vivo in animals that dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) were capable of forming ectopic dentin and associated pulp tissue. [20],[21] Batouli et al. used an in vivo stem cell transplantation system to investigate differential regulation mechanisms of bone marrow stromal stem cells (BMSCs) and DPSCs. DPSCs were found to be able to generate a reparative dentin-like tissue on the surface of human dentin in vivo. This study provided direct evidence to suggest that osteogenesis and dentinogenesis mediated by BMSCs and DPSCs, respectively, may be regulated by distinct mechanisms, leading to the different organization of the mineralized and nonmineralized tissues. [22]
Periodontal regeneration
Regenerating the periodontium has always been a high priority in craniofacial regenerative biology. Due to the complex structure of the periodontium (consisting of hard and soft tissues), its complete regeneration has always remained a challenge. All the current regenerative techniques such as autologous bone grafts, allografts, or alloplastic materials have limitations and cannot be used in all clinical situations. Therefore, a cell-mediated bone regeneration technique will be a viable therapeutic alternative. Kawaguchi et al. demonstrated that the transplantation of ex vivo expanded autologous MSCs can regenerate new cementum, alveolar bone, and periodontal ligament in class III periodontal defects in dogs. [23] Going a step further, periodontal ligament cells cultured in vitro were successfully reimplanted into periodontal defects in order to promote periodontal regeneration by Hasegawa et al. [24] A subsequent study by the same group reported a similar approach in humans. This study reported firm evidence that stem cells can be used to regenerate a tissue as complex as the periodontium. [25]
Repair and regeneration of bone in craniofacial defects
Craniofacial bone grafting procedures rely on autologous bone grafting, devitalized allogenic bone grafting (using bone from bone bank), and natural/synthetic osteoconductive biomaterials. Autologous bone grafting is limited by donor site morbidity and allogenic bone is often destroyed soon. A long-term outcome using biomaterials relies on their ability to encourage local cells to completely regenerate a defect and results are often not encouraging. If stem cells can be harvested in a scaffold and transplanted into a defect to regenerate the lost tissue, it can alleviate a lot of complications associated with the traditional techniques. Abukawa et al. used a novel scaffold design with a new fabrication protocol to generate an autologous tissue engineered construct which was used to repair a segmental mandibular defect. The technique promoted osteogenesis and enhanced penetration of bone with blood vessels thereby accelerating tissue regeneration. [26] In a dog model, Yamada et al. showed that a mixture of MSCs and platelet-rich plasma improved bone implant contact and bone density in a mandibular defect. [27] The development of new scaffold fabrication technologies has facilitated a successful repair of three dimensionally complex cranial defects. [28] To further enhance the regenerative potential of MSCs, genetic engineering technologies have been utilized to extend the life of stem cells and to enhance osteogenesis. [29],[30],[31] In summary, cell-derived therapy for the repair of osseous defects has been relatively successful and numerous clinical trials in human craniofacial defects are underway.
Whole tooth regeneration
A therapeutic option that was unthinkable a few years ago seems an achievable goal today. Even to this day, the replacement of missing teeth has limitations. Although, implants are a significant improvement over dentures and bridges, their fundamental limitation is the lack of natural structural relationship with the alveolar bone (absence of periodontal ligament). They rely on direct integration of bone on tooth surface which is indeed an unnatural relationship as compared with the natural tooth. Further, they are also associated with a lot of esthetic, functional, and surgical limitations that affect their prognosis. Ohazama et al. reported the reconstruction of murine teeth using cultured stem cells which when transferred into renal capsules resulted in the development of tooth structures and associated bone. [32] Nakao et al. recently engineered teeth ectopically and transplanted them into an anthrotopic site in a mouse jaw. [33] Sonayama et al. used SCAP and PDLSCs and formed a bioroot in mini pigs. SCAP and PDLSCs were seeded in a scaffold and implanted into the sockets of the lower jaw. Postchannels were precreated to leave space for postinsertion and 3 months later the bioroot was exposed and a porcelain crown was inserted. The bioroot developed, and had a natural relationship with the surrounding bone. [34]
| Nature Versus Nurture | | |
Despite the significant advances made in medicine over the years, replacing the experienced processes perfected by nature is indeed a difficult proposition. We are yet to get a suitable blood substitute, and still rely on "blood for blood," and "tissue for tissue." Although there is little doubt that the best material to replace a tooth or tooth-related tissue is the tooth tissue itself, the question that lies before us is "Can we do it in a way that is predictable and is it practical/clinically feasible?" For any new therapy to be accepted, it should either be more effective than or as effective as the existing therapy with added advantages in terms of technique being simpler, more predictable, long-lasting, time/cost-effective, etc. If the above goal has to be achieved and if laboratory research has to be translated into clinical practice, there are certain barriers that have to be first understood and later overcome.
Barriers to overcome
To regenerate tooth/tooth-related tissues, the prerequisites are:
- Stem cells
- Signaling molecules - to induce differentiation into the required tissue type, i.e., into osteoblasts, odontoblasts, cementoblasts, fibroblasts, etc.
- Scaffold material to support and harvest cellular proliferation.
Stem cell source
Stem cells obtained from any adult tissue are less, about 1-4%. [35] Further, their isolation, expansion, and storage is a very technique-sensitive procedure. When banked, how long can they be safely stored retaining the original stemness is questionable. MSCs are considered immunomodulatory as they lack MHC type II (major histocompatibility complex) antigen and therefore do not provoke immune reactions. However, foolproof evidence for their immune suppression characteristics needs to be established. [36] As of now, autologous stem cells are ideally suited for a patient as there is no risk of immune rejection, the process is least expensive, and avoids legal and ethical concerns. The cells need to be procured from an autologous source, and isolated and expanded in number before they can be used and hence the process is time consuming.
The use of pre-existing allogenic cell lines and cell organ culture removes the problem of harvesting cells from the patients themselves and saves considerable time. [37] One of the serious questions that have remained unanswered is "Are allogenic stem cells safe in terms of immune suppression and pathogen transmission?" [38] However, there are many in vivo studies which support that they is immunologically safe. [39],[40]
Signaling molecules
There are many growth factors that play a role in tissue regeneration. Growth factors are proteins that bind to receptors on the cell and induce cellular proliferation and/or differentiation. [41] Dentin contains many proteins that are capable of stimulating tissue responses. The demineralization of dentin tissue due to caries can itself lead to the release of growth factors. [42] It is also suggested that the therapeutic effect of calcium hydroxide may be because of the extraction of growth factors from dentin matrix. [43] Once released, these growth factors may play a role in signaling many of the events of tertiary dentinogenesis, a response of pulp-dentin repair. [44],[45] Two important families of growth factors that play a vital role are the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) family [46],[47] and bone morphogenic proteins (BMPs). [48],[49],[50],[51],[52] Although we are aware of the role played by these signaling molecules, we are yet to have clarity on how these signals can be spatially distributed in a right combination, time, and sequence which indeed is crucial to obtain predictable results.
Scaffold
The scaffolds used for regeneration should be biodegradable and the rate of degradation should coincide with the rate of tissue formation. They should be highly porous to facilitate cell seeding and diffusion of nutrients. While cells are fabricating their own natural matrix structure around themselves, the scaffolds should provide structural integrity and then eventually breakdown leaving the newly formed tissue. During this entire process, they should maintain important characteristics of stem cells and yet allow for appropriate differentiation of their progeny. [53],[54]
Scaffold materials
Several scaffolds have been tried which include both natural and synthetic materials. Natural materials like collagen, alginate, agarose, [55] chitosan, and glycoseaminoglycans (GAGs) [56],[57] have been tried. Synthetic materials have been more extensively investigated which include hydroxyapetite/tricalcium phosphate, and polymers like polylactic acid, polyglycolic acid, and polycaprolactone. Synthetic polymers are found to be more conductive and show less contraction as compared to collagen. [58],[59]
Scaffold designs and delivery
To regenerate bone and other body parts, it is preferable to have rigid tissue-engineered scaffold structures as they provide an excellent physical support to the cells. [60] However, in the root canal system it is preferable to have a soft three-dimensional scaffold matrix such as polymer hydrogel which can be noninvasive and easily delivered by injecting into the root canal systems. [61],[62] Hydrogels are in the early stage of research and yet to be proven in vivo. Research is on in making them photopolymerizable to form rigid structures once they are implanted into any tissue site. [63] Another problem in tissue regeneration is vascularization of the area. Enhanced vascularization is needed in order to support the vitality of the implanted cells in the scaffold. Efforts are on in developing a scaffold system that promotes angiogenesis of the vascular network by impregnating the scaffold with growth factors like vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and/or platelet-derived growth factor or further with an addition of endothelial cells. These techniques are particularly important for pulp tissue engineering as the blood supply is only from the apical end. [64],[65],[66],[67],[68],[69]
| Conclusion | | |
Stem cells derived from all sources hold immense medical promises. Stem cell therapies have virtually unlimited medical and dental applications. While there are several barriers that need to be broken down before this novel therapy can be translated from lab to clinics, it is certain that the future is going to be exciting for all of us. We have moved on from the surgical model of care to the medical model and are likely to move onto the biological model of care. The need of the hour is high-quality research coupled with collaboration between basic scientists and the clinicians. A team effort engaging the expertise of the molecular biologists, immunologists, biomaterial scientists, cell biologists, matrix biologists, and practicing dental surgeons is crucial in attaining the desired goal. Stem cell therapy is no longer science fiction. Recent developments in the technique of stem cell isolation and expansion together with advances in growth factor biology and biodegradable polymer constructs have set a stage for successful tissue engineering of tooth/tooth-related tissues. Stem cell therapy has brought in a lot of optimistic hope amongst researchers, doctors, and not to forget the patients who are the chief beneficiary of this innovation. Stem cells regenerate hope and not all that is happening in research is hype.
Remember - "Hope is a prerequisite for any successful scientific innovation." And one day, very soon, stem cells will be introduced as an alternate/adjuvant in medicine and dentistry.
| References | | |
| 1. | Evans MJ, Kaufman MH. Establishment in culture of pluripotent cells from mouse embryos. Nature 1981;292:154-6.  [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 2. | Keller GM. In vitro differentiation of embryonic stem cells. Curr Opin Cell Biol 1995;7:862-9. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 3. | Fortier LA. Stem cells, classification, controversies and clinical applications. Vet Surg 2005;34:415-23. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 4. | Gronthos S, Mankani M, Brahim J, Gehron Robey PG, Shi S. Postnatal human dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs). 2000. |
| 5. | Miura M, Gronthos S, Zhao M, Lu B, Fischer LW, Robey PG, et al. SHED: Stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003;100:5807-54. |
| 6. | Seo B, Miura M, Gronthos S, Bartold PM, Batouli S, Brahim J, et al. Investigation of multipotent postnatal stem cells from human periodontal ligament. Lancet 2004;364:149-55. |
| 7. | Sonoyama W, Liu Y, Fang D, Yamaza T, Seo BM, Zhang C, et al. Mesenchymal stem cell mediated functional tooth regeneration in Swine. PLoS One 2006;1:e79. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 8. | Sonoyama W, Liu Y, Yamaza T, Tuan RS, Wang S, Shi S, et al. Characterization of the apical papilla and its residing stem cells from human immature permanent teeth: Pilot study. J Endod 2008;34:166-71. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 9. | Barker RA, Jain M, Armstrong RJ, Caldwell MA. Stem cells and neurological disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2003;74:553-7. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 10. | Davila JC, Cezar GG, Thiede M, Strom S, Miki T, Trosko J. Use and application of stem cells in toxicology. Toxicol Sci 2004;79:214-23. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 11. | Fuchs JR, Hannouche D, Terada S, Zand S, Vacanti JP, Fauza DO. Cartilage engineering from ovine umbilical cord blood mesenchymal progenitor cells. Stem Cells 2005;23:958-64. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 12. | Daley GQ, Scadden DT. Prospects for stem cell-based therapy. Cell 2008;132:544-8. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 13. | Burns CJ, Persaud SJ, Jones PM. Stem cell therapy for diabetes: Do we need to make beta cells? J Endocr 2004;183:437-43. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 14. | Langston WJ. The promise of stem cells in Parkinson disease. Clin Invest 2005;115:23-5 |
| 15. | Tateishi K, Takehara N, Matsubara H, Oh H. Stemming heart failure with cardiac- or reprogrammed-stem cells: Stem cells review series. J Cell Mole Med 2008;12:2217-32. |
| 16. | Steinhauser ML, Lee RT. Cardiovascular regeneration: Pushing and pulling on progenitotors. Cell Stem Cell 2009;4:277-8. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 17. | Doyon GE, Dumsha T, von Fraunhofer JA. Fracture resistance of human root dentin exposed to intracanal calcium hydroxide. J Endod 2005;31:895-7. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 18. | Caplan DJ, Cai J, Yin G, White BA. Root canal filled versus non root canal filled teeth: A retrospective comparison of survival times. J Public Health Dent 2005;65:90-6. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 19. | Murray PE, Garcia-Godoy F, Hargreaves KM. Regenerative endodontics: A review of current status and a call for action. J Endod 2007;33:377-90 [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 20. | Gronthos S, Brahim J, Fisher W, Cherman N, Boyde A, DenBesten P, et al. Stem cell properties of human dental pulp stem cells. J Dent Res 2002;81:533. |
| 21. | Gronthos S, Mankani M, Brahim J, Robey G, Shi S. Postnatal human dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) in vitro and in vivo. PNAS 2000;97:13625-30. |
| 22. | Batouli S, Miura M, Brahim J, Tsutsui TW, Fisher LW, Gronthos S, et al. Comparison of stem-cell-mediated osteogenesis and dentinogenesis. J Dent Res 2003;82:976-81. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 23. | Kawaguchi H, Hirachi A, Hasegawa N, Iwata T, Hamaguchi H, Shiba H, et al. Enhancement of periodontal tissue regeneration by transplantation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells. J Periodontal 2004;75:1281-7. |
| 24. | Hasegawa M, Yamato M, Kikuchi A, Okano T, Ishikawa I. Human periodontal ligament stem cell sheets can regenerate periodontal ligament tissue in athymical rat model. Tissue Eng 2005;11:469-77. |
| 25. | Kawaguchi H, Hirachi A, Mizuno N, Fujita T, Hasegawa N, Shiba H, et al. Cell transplantation for periodontal diseases: A novel periodontal regenerative therapy using bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells. Clin Calcium 2005;15:1197-202. |
| 26. | Abukawa H, Shin M, Williams WB, Vacanti JP, Kaban LB, Troulis MJ. Reconstruction of mandibular autologous tissue-engineered bone. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2004;62:601-6. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 27. | Yamada Y, Ueda M, Naiki T, Nagasaka T. Tissue-engineered injectable bone regeneration for osseo implalnts. Clin Oral Implantd Res 2004;15:584-97. |
| 28. | Hutmacher DW, Sittinger M, Risbud MV. Scaffold based tissue engineering: Rationale for compute solid free-form fabrication systems. Trends Biotechnol 2004;22:354-62. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 29. | Shi S, Gronthos, Chen S, Reddi A, Counter CM, Robey PG, et al. Bone formation by human postnatal bone marrow stromal stem cells is enhanced by telomerase expression. Nat Biotechnol 2002;20:587-91. |
| 30. | Gronthos S, Chen S, Wang CY, Robey PG, Shi S. Telomerase accelerates osteogenesis of bone marrow stromal stem cellsby upgradation of CBFAI, osterix and osteocalcin. J Bone Miner Res 2003;16:716-22. |
| 31. | Edwards PC, Ruggiero S, Fantasia J, Burakoff R, Moorji SM, Paric E, et al. Sonic hedgehog gene-enhanced tissue engineering for bone regeneration. Gene ther 2005;12:75-86. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 32. | Ohazama A, Miletech MS, Sharpe PT. Stem cell tissue engineering of Murine teeth. J Dent Res 2004;83:518-52 |
| 33. | Nakao K, Morita R, Saji Y, Ishida K, Tomita Y, Ogawa M, et al. The development of bioengineered organ germ method. Nat Met 2007;4:227-30. |
| 34. | Sonoyama W, Liu Y, Fang D, Yamaza T, Seo BM, Zhang C, et al. Mesenchymal stem cell mediated functional tooth regeneration in swine. PLoS One 2006;1:e79. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 35. | Poulsom R, Alison MR, Forbes SJ, Wright NA. Adult stem cell plasticity. J Pathol 2002;197:441-56. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 36. | Barry FP, Murphy JM. Mesenchymal stem cells: Clinical applications and biological characterization. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2004;36:568-84. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 37. | Hu D, Helms J. Organ culture of craniofacial primordial. Methods 2001;24:49-54. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 38. | Le Blanc K, Ringden O. Immunobiology of human mesenchymal stem cells and future use in hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 2005;11:321-34. |
| 39. | Slifkin M, Doron S, Snydman DR. Viral prophylaxis in organ transplant patients. Drugs 2004;64:2763-92. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 40. | Atiyeh BS, Hayek SN, Gunn SW. new technologies for burn wound closure and healing: Review of the literature. Burns 2005;31:944-56. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 41. | Wingard JR, Demetri GD, editors. Clinical applications of cytokines and growth factors. New York, NY: Springer; 1999. |
| 42. | Murray PE, Smith AJ. Saving pulps: A biologic basis: An overview. Prim Dent Care 2002;9:21-6. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 43. | Smith AJ, Cassidy N, Perry H, Begue-Kirn C, Ruch JV, Lesot H. Reactionary dentinogenesis. Int J Dev Biol 1995;39:273-80. |
| 44. | Tziafas D. Basic mechanism of cytodifferentiation and dentinogenesis during dental pulp repair. Int J Dev Biol 1995;39:281-90. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 45. | Tziafas D, Alvanou A, Panagiotakopoulos N. Induction of odontoblast-like cell differentiation in dog dental pulps after in vivo implantation of dentin matrix components. Arch Oral Boil 2000;45:1013-6. |
| 46. | Smith AJ, Matthews JB, Hall RC. Transforming growth facror-beta1(TGF-Beta1) in dentin matrix: Ligand activation and receptor expression. Eur J Oral Sci 1998;106:179-84. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 47. | Smith AJ, Murray PE, Sloan AJ, Matthews JB, Zhao S. Trans-dentinal stimulation of tertiary dentinogenesis. Adv Dent Res 2001;15:51-4. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 48. | Nakashima M, Nagasawa H, Yamada Y, Reddi AH. Regulatory role of transforming growth factor-beta, bone morphogenetic protein-2, and protein-4 on gene expression of extracellular matrix proteins and differentiation of dental pulp cells. Dev Biol 1994;162:18-28. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 49. | Saito T, Ogama M, Hata Y, Besscho K. Acceleration effect of human recombinant bone morphogenetic protein-2 on differentiation of human pulp cells into odontoblasts. J Endod 2004;30:205-8. |
| 50. | Iohara K, Nakashima M, Ishikawa M, Nakasima A, Akamine A. dentin regeneration by dental pulp stem cell therapy with recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein 2. J Dent Res 2004;83:590-5. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 51. | Sloan AJ, Smith AJ. Stimulation of dentin-pulp complex of rat incisor teeth by transforming growth factor-beta isoforms 1-3 in vitro. Arch Oral Biol 1999;44:149-56. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 52. | Sloan AJ, Rutherford RB, Smith AJ. Stimulation of reat dentin-pulp complex by bone morphogenetic protein-7 in vitro. Arch Oral Biol 2000;45:173-7. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 53. | Schopper C, Ziya-Ghazvini F, Goriwoda W, Moser D, Wanschitz F, Spassova E, et al. HA/TCP compounding of a porous CaP biomaterial improves bone formation and scaffold degradation: A long-term histological study. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater 2005;74:458-67. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 54. | Sachlos E, Czernuszka JT. Making tissue engineering scaffolds work: Review: The application of solid freeform fabrication technology to the production of tissue engineering scaffolds. Eur Cell Mater 2003;30:29-39. |
| 55. | Hutmacher DW, Goh JC, Tech SH. An introduction to biodegradable materials for tissue engineering application. Ann Acad Med Singapore 2001:30:183-91. |
| 56. | Griffon DJ, Sedighi MR, Sendimir-Urkmez A, Stewart AA, Jamison R. evaluation of vacuum and dynamic cell seeding of polyglycolic acid and chitosan scaffolds for cartilage engineerinf. Am J Vet Res 2005;66;599-605. |
| 57. | Guo T, Zhao J, Chang J, Ding Z, Hong H, Cheng J, et al. porous chitosan gelatin scaffold containing plasmid DNA encoding transforming growth factor-beta1 for chondrocytes proliferation. Biomaterials 2006;8:150-61. |
| 58. | Taylor MS, Daniels AU, Andriano KP, Heller J. Six bioabsorbable polymers: In vitro acute toxicity of accumulated degradation products. J Appl Biomater 1994;5:151-7. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 59. | Ma PX, Choi JW. Biodegradable polymer scaffolds with well defined interconnected spherical pore network. Tissue Eng 2001;7:23-33. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 60. | Elisseef J, Puleo C, Yang F, Sharma B. Advances in skeletal tissue engineering with hydrogels. Orthod Craniofac Res 2005;8:150-61. |
| 61. | Trojani C, Weiss P, Michiels JF, Vinatier C, Guicheux J, Daculsi G, et al. Three dimensional culture and differentiation of human osteogenic cells in an injectable hydroxypropylmethylcellulose hydrogel. Biomaterials 2005;26:5509-17. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 62. | Dhariwala B, Hunt E, Boland T. Rapid prototyping of tissue engineering constructs, using photopolymerizable hydrogels and stereolithography. Tissue Eng 2004;10:1316-22. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 63. | Luo Y, Shoichet MS. A photolabile hydrogel for guided three dimensional cell growth and migration. Nat Mater 2004;3:249-53. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 64. | Kanematsu A, Yamamato S, Ozeki M, Noguchi T, Kanatani I, Ogawa O, et al. Collagenous matrices as release carriers of exogenous growth factors. Biomaterials 2004;25:4513-20. |
| 65. | Peters MC, Polverini PJ, Mooney DJ. Engineering vascular networks in porous polymer matrices. J Biomed Mater Res 2002;60:668-78. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 66. | Sun Q, Chen RR, Shen Y, Mooney DJ, Rajagopalan S, Grossman PM. Sustained vascular endothelial growth factor delivery enhances angiogenesis and perfusion in ischemic hind limb. Pharm Res 2005;22:1110-6. [PUBMED] [FULLTEXT] |
| 67. | Sheridon MH, Shea LD, Peters MC, Mooney DJ. Biodegradable polymer scaffolds for tissue engineering capable of sustained growth factor delivery. J Control Release 2000;64:91-102. |
| 68. | Richardson TP, Peters MC, Ennet AB, Mooney DJ. Polymeric system for dual growth factor delivery. Nat Biotechnol 2001:19:1029-34. |
| 69. | Stiver SI, Tan X, Brown LF, Hedley-Whyte ET, Dvorak HF, VEGF-A angiogenesis induces a stable neovascular in adult murine brain. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2004;63:841-55. |
Correspondence Address:
Roopa R Nadig
Department of Conservative Dentistry and Endodontics, Dayananda Sagar College of Dental Sciences, Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bangalore - 560 078
India
 Source of Support: None, Conflict of Interest: None  | Check |
DOI: 10.4103/0972-0707.58329
|
|
| This article has been cited by | | 1 |
Anti-aging effects of the pistachio Extract on Mesenchymal Stem Cells proliferation and telomerase activity |
|
| Nahid Askari, Fatemeh Asadi, Atefeh Nazer, Soudeh Khanamani Falahati-pour | | Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics. 2023; : 105016 | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 2 |
Proliferation-Related Features of the Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells Derived from Palatine Tonsils, Adipose Tissues, and Bone Marrow |
|
| Sohee Park, Yeuni Yu, Gi Cheol Park, Sung-Chan Shin, Ji Min Kim, Byung-Joo Lee, Yun Hak Kim | | Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine. 2023; | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 3 |
Exploring the Role of Stem Cell Therapy in Treating Neurodegenerative
Diseases: Challenges and Current Perspectives |
|
| Nidhi Puranik, Ananta Prasad Arukha, Shiv Kumar Yadav, Dhananjay Yadav, Jun O. Jin | | Current Stem Cell Research & Therapy. 2022; 17(2): 113 | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 4 |
Encapsulation of stem-cell derived ß-cells: a promising approach for the treatment for type 1 diabetes mellitus |
|
| Myriam Neumann, Thierry Arnould, Bao-Lian Su | | Journal of Colloid and Interface Science. 2022; | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 5 |
Highly specific functional equivalence of XN-HPC for optimum CD34+ cell count in harvested allogeneic bone marrow stem cell products |
|
| Aisha Jamal, Tahir Khan, Uzma Zaidi, Quratul Ain Rizvi, Shafaq Jahanzeb, Ali Salim, Mehjabeen Imam, Tahir Shamsi | | Hematology. 2022; 27(1): 232 | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 6 |
TOOTH BANKING OR DENTAL STEM CELL BANKING & ITS ROLE IN PEDIATRIC DENTISTRY; LITERATUREREVIEW |
|
| Sachin Tomar, Seema Thakur, Deepak Chauhan | | INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH. 2022; : 59 | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 7 |
Promising Stem Cell therapy in the Management of HIV and AIDS: A Narrative Review |
|
| Usha Rani Kandula, Addisu Dabi Wake | | Biologics: Targets and Therapy. 2022; Volume 16: 89 | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 8 |
Peptide- and Protein-Graphene Oxide Conjugate Materials for Controlling Mesenchymal Stem Cell Fate |
|
| Karoline E. Eckhart, Stephen J. Schmidt, Francesca A. Starvaggi, Michelle E. Wolf, Walker M. Vickery, Stefanie A. Sydlik | | Regenerative Engineering and Translational Medicine. 2021; 7(4): 460 | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 9 |
Hyaluronic Acid Hydrogel Microspheres for Slow Release Stem Cell Delivery |
|
| Megan Hamilton, Stephen Harrington, Prajnaparamita Dhar, Lisa Stehno-Bittel | | ACS Biomaterials Science & Engineering. 2021; 7(8): 3754 | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 10 |
Editorial Commentary: Stem Cells. They Are in the Fat Tissue, Bone Marrow, and Even in the Synovial Fluid of the Knee Joint |
|
| Erik Hohmann | | Arthroscopy: The Journal of Arthroscopic & Related Surgery. 2021; 37(3): 901 | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 11 |
Encapsulation of murine hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells in a thiol-crosslinked maleimide-functionalized gelatin hydrogel |
|
| Aidan E. Gilchrist, Julio F. Serrano, Mai T. Ngo, Zona Hrnjak, Sanha Kim, Brendan A.C. Harley | | Acta Biomaterialia. 2021; 131: 138 | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 12 |
Gingival-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cell from Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus): Isolation, Culture, and Characterization |
|
| Alexander Patera Nugraha, Fedik Abdul Rantam, Ida Bagus Narmada, Diah Savitri Ernawati, Igo Syaiful Ihsan | | European Journal of Dentistry. 2021; 15(02): 332 | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 13 |
Evaluation of vascular endothelial growth factor - A release from platelet-rich fibrin, platelet-rich fibrin matrix, and dental pulp at different time intervals |
|
| Shruthi Nagaraja, Sylvia Mathew, Anil Abraham, Poornima Ramesh, Shashank Chandanala | | Journal of Conservative Dentistry. 2020; 23(4): 359 | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 14 |
Differentiation of Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells towards Neuronal Lineage: Clinical Trials in Nervous System Disorders |
|
| Rosa Hernández, Cristina Jiménez-Luna, Jesús Perales-Adán, Gloria Perazzoli, Consolación Melguizo, José Prados | | Biomolecules & Therapeutics. 2020; 28(1): 34 | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 15 |
Promissory and protective imaginaries of regenerative medicine: Expectations work and scenario maintenance of disease research charities in the United Kingdom |
|
| Sandhya Duggal, Alex Faulkner | | Public Understanding of Science. 2020; 29(4): 392 | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 16 |
Transplantation of Human Adipose Stem Cells Using Acellular Human Amniotic Membrane Improves Angiogenesis in Injured Endometrial Tissue in a Rat Intrauterine Adhesion Model |
|
| Xiao Han, Yuejiao Ma, Xin Lu, Weihong Li, Enlan Xia, Tin-Chiu Li, Haiyan Zhang, Xiaowu Huang | | Cell Transplantation. 2020; 29: 0963689720 | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 17 |
Evaluation of cell viability of human dental pulp stem cells in two dimensional and three dimensional fibrin glue scaffold |
|
| Abhishek Parmar, NeedaA Ansari, Girish Parmar, Amee Krishnakumar | | Journal of Conservative Dentistry. 2020; 23(5): 479 | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 18 |
Stem-cell Therapy in Human Osteoarthritis: A Debate |
|
| Elaheh Ziaei Ziabari, Alireza Ebrahimi, Soheil Ashkani-Esfahani, Mohammad Razi | | Thrita. 2020; 8(2) | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 19 |
Macroscale biomaterials strategies for local immunomodulation |
|
| Maxence O. Dellacherie, Bo Ri Seo, David J. Mooney | | Nature Reviews Materials. 2019; 4(6): 379 | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 20 |
Therapeutic application of multipotent stem cells |
|
| Hamed Mirzaei, Amirhossein Sahebkar, Laleh Shiri Sichani, Abdullah Moridikia, Sara Nazari, Javid Sadri Nahand, Hossein salehi, Jan Stenvang, Aria Masoudifar, Hamid R. Mirzaei, Mahmoud R. Jaafari | | Journal of Cellular Physiology. 2018; 233(4): 2815 | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 21 |
Modeling cadmium-induced endothelial toxicity using human pluripotent stem cell-derived endothelial cells |
|
| Ling Tang, Jun Su, Ping Liang | | Scientific Reports. 2017; 7(1) | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 22 |
Gene Delivery Approaches for Mesenchymal Stem Cell Therapy: Strategies to Increase Efficiency and Specificity |
|
| Gopi Suresh Oggu, Shyama Sasikumar, Nirosha Reddy, Kranthi Kiran Reddy Ella, Ch. Mohan Rao, Kiran Kumar Bokara | | Stem Cell Reviews and Reports. 2017; 13(6): 725 | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 23 |
Engineering Nanoscale Stem Cell Niche: Direct Stem Cell Behavior at Cell–Matrix Interface |
|
| Yan Zhang, Andrew Gordon, Weiyi Qian, Weiqiang Chen | | Advanced Healthcare Materials. 2015; 4(13): 1900 | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 24 |
Odontogenic epithelial stem cells: hidden sources |
|
| Sivan Padma Priya, Akon Higuchi, Salem Abu Fanas, Mok Pooi Ling, Vasantha Kumari Neela, P M Sunil, T R Saraswathi, Kadarkarai Murugan, Abdullah A Alarfaj, Murugan A Munusamy, Suresh Kumar | | Laboratory Investigation. 2015; 95(12): 1344 | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 25 |
A gene therapy induced emphysema model and the protective role of stem cells |
|
| Paul Zarogoulidis,Wolfgang Hohenforst-Schmidt,Haidong Huang,Despoina Sahpatzidou,Lutz Freitag,Leonidas Sakkas,Aggeliki Rapti,Ioannis Kioumis,Georgia Pitsiou,Kokkona Kouzi-Koliakos,Anna Papamichail,Antonis Papaiwannou,Theodora Tsiouda,Kosmas Tsakiridis,Konstantinos Porpodis,Sofia Lampaki,John Organtzis,Andreas Gschwendtner,Konstantinos Zarogoulidis | | Diagnostic Pathology. 2014; 9(1) | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 26 |
FOXF1 mediates mesenchymal stem cell fusion-induced reprogramming of lung cancer cells |
|
| Hong-Jian Wei, Jac A. Nickoloff, Wei-Hong Chen, Hen-Yu Liu, Wen-Cheng Lo, Ya-Ting Chang, Pan-Chyr Yang, Cheng-Wen Wu, David F. Williams, Juri G. Gelovani, Win-Ping Deng | | Oncotarget. 2014; 5(19): 9514 | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 27 |
The combination of DHEA, histamine, and insulin increases adipogenic differentiation and enhances tissue transplantation outcome in mice |
|
| Yoorim Park,Min Kyung Jung,Sun Young Yoon,Ha-Reum Lee,Dae Young Hur,Daejin Kim,Yoolhee Yang,Tae Sung Kim,Seonghan Kim,Suk Ran Yoon,Hyun Jeong Park,Sa Ik Bang,Dae Ho Cho | | Biotechnology and Applied Biochemistry. 2013; 60(3): 356 | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 28 |
Stem cell therapy for the treatment of parasitic infections: is it far away? |
|
| Yan Zhang,Jing-Yi Mi,Yong-Jun Rui,Yong-Liang Xu,Wei Wang | | Parasitology Research. 2013; | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 29 |
The Promise of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells in Dental Research |
|
| Thekkeparambil Chandrabose Srijaya,Padmaja Jayaprasad Pradeep,Rosnah Binti Zain,Sabri Musa,Noor Hayaty Abu Kasim,Vijayendran Govindasamy | | Stem Cells International. 2012; 2012: 1 | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | | | 30 |
Evidence-Based Medicine and Stem Cell Therapy: How Do We Know Such Technologies are Safe and Efficacious? |
|
| Peter D. Clegg,Gina L. Pinchbeck | | Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice. 2011; 27(2): 373 | | [Pubmed] | [DOI] | |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Article Access Statistics | | | Viewed | 12601 | | | Printed | 470 | | | Emailed | 1 | | | PDF Downloaded | 1332 | | | Comments | [Add] | | | Cited by others | 30 | | |
|
|
